Indonesia's forest and land fires are not only a domestic environmental challenge. When smoke travels across national borders, the consequences can reach neighboring countries, disrupt daily life and create diplomatic tensions across Southeast Asia.
This phenomenon is known as transboundary haze pollution.
The issue is especially important in Southeast Asia, where fires in Indonesia can affect air quality in Malaysia, Singapore and other parts of the region, depending on wind direction, atmospheric conditions and the location of active fires.
The challenge is not simply how to extinguish a fire. It is how countries can work together to prevent fires, share information, protect public health and reduce pollution that crosses borders.
Understanding the connection between Indonesian wildfires and ASEAN haze requires looking at geography, land management, regional agreements and the practical limits of international cooperation.
What Is ASEAN Haze?
ASEAN haze refers to episodes of air pollution affecting countries in Southeast Asia, often associated with smoke from forest and land fires.
The term is commonly used when smoke travels beyond the country where the fires originate.
Haze can contain fine particulate matter, including PM2.5, as well as gases and other pollutants produced by combustion.
The severity of an episode depends on several factors:
- The number and size of active fires
- Whether fires occur on peatlands or other vegetation
- The amount of smoke produced
- Wind direction and speed
- Rainfall and atmospheric conditions
- The distance between fires and populated areas
A fire does not automatically create a regional haze crisis. But when extensive fires coincide with dry weather and atmospheric conditions that carry smoke toward populated areas, pollution can spread over a wide region.
Why Indonesia's Wildfires Can Affect Other Countries
Indonesia is an archipelago located near several other Southeast Asian countries. Parts of Sumatra and Kalimantan lie relatively close to Malaysia and Singapore.
When fires occur in these regions, smoke can be carried across maritime boundaries by prevailing winds.
The direction and intensity of smoke movement change with weather patterns. Some episodes mainly affect local communities, while others spread across national borders.
This makes wildfire smoke different from many other forms of local pollution.
A community may experience deteriorating air quality because of a fire hundreds of kilometers away, even though the fire is outside its national jurisdiction.
As a result, haze management requires both domestic action and regional coordination.
How Do Forest and Peat Fires Create Regional Haze?
The process begins when vegetation or organic material burns.
Combustion releases particles and gases into the atmosphere. If the smoke accumulates or is transported toward populated areas, air quality can deteriorate.
Peat fires can make the problem particularly persistent.
Peatlands contain partially decomposed organic material accumulated over long periods. When drained and dried, peat can burn underground and continue smoldering after surface flames have diminished.
These fires can be difficult to extinguish completely and may produce prolonged smoke.
The sequence can look like this:
Land degradation or drainage → dry conditions → ignition → forest or peat fire → smoke emissions → atmospheric transport → regional haze.
Each stage creates an opportunity for prevention.
Keeping peatlands wet, preventing uncontrolled burning and detecting fires early can reduce the likelihood that local fires develop into regional pollution episodes.
Which ASEAN Countries Can Be Affected?
The countries affected by haze depend on the location of fires and prevailing atmospheric conditions.
Malaysia
Parts of Malaysia can experience haze when smoke from fires in Sumatra or Kalimantan travels across the region.
Potential consequences include reduced visibility, unhealthy air quality and disruptions to outdoor activities.
Singapore
Singapore is particularly sensitive to smoke transported from nearby parts of Sumatra and the wider region.
During severe episodes, air-quality measurements can deteriorate and authorities may issue health advisories.
Brunei Darussalam
Brunei can also be affected by regional smoke, particularly when fire activity and wind conditions influence Borneo and surrounding areas.
Other Southeast Asian countries
The wider region can experience smoke impacts under certain conditions. The extent varies, and not every country is affected during every fire season.
The important point is that haze is a regional risk, not a uniform event affecting all ASEAN countries equally.
The Health Consequences of Transboundary Haze
The most immediate concern is human exposure to polluted air.
Fine particles such as PM2.5 can penetrate deep into the lungs. Exposure is associated with respiratory and cardiovascular health effects.
During severe haze, people may experience eye irritation, coughing, throat discomfort and breathing difficulties. People with existing respiratory or cardiovascular conditions may be particularly vulnerable.
Children, older adults, pregnant people and outdoor workers may require additional protection.
Haze can also make it difficult for people to avoid exposure. Workers may need to remain outdoors, while schools and businesses may face difficult decisions about whether to continue normal activities.
This is why transboundary haze should be treated as a public-health concern as well as an environmental issue.
For more on the health consequences, see our related article, Karhutla and Human Health in Indonesia.
Haze Can Disrupt More Than Public Health
Regional haze can affect several parts of the economy and everyday life.
Transportation: Reduced visibility can complicate road, maritime and aviation operations.
Education: Schools may reduce outdoor activities or temporarily suspend in-person classes during severe pollution.
Tourism: Poor visibility and health concerns can affect travel decisions and visitor experiences.
Business: Outdoor work, logistics and other operations may be disrupted.
Healthcare: Health services can face additional demand when respiratory complaints increase.
The costs are not always easy to calculate because they are spread across households, businesses, governments and different countries.
However, the effects demonstrate why wildfire prevention can have economic benefits well beyond the immediate fire zone.
Why ASEAN Created a Regional Haze Agreement
Southeast Asian countries have been dealing with transboundary haze for decades.
Following severe land and forest fires in 1997–1998, ASEAN member states signed the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP) on June 10, 2002.
The agreement entered into force in 2003. Indonesia completed its ratification process in 2014, depositing its instrument of ratification in January 2015. ASEAN's official haze portal records all ten member states as parties to the agreement.
The agreement provides a framework for countries to cooperate on preventing, monitoring and mitigating transboundary haze caused by land and forest fires.
Its areas of cooperation include:
- Monitoring and assessment
- Fire prevention and preparedness
- Information and technology exchange
- National and joint emergency response
- Technical cooperation and scientific research
- Coordination of assistance during emergencies
The agreement recognizes that smoke pollution cannot be managed effectively through isolated national efforts alone.
What Does the ASEAN Haze Agreement Actually Do?
The agreement establishes a framework for cooperation. It does not mean that ASEAN can automatically control every fire within a member country's territory.
National authorities remain central to enforcement, land management and firefighting.
Regional mechanisms can support these efforts through information sharing, coordination, technical assistance and emergency-response procedures.
The ASEAN Agreement also provides for cooperation when a country affected by haze seeks relevant information from another country where fires originate.
The practical effectiveness of these arrangements depends on implementation, communication, resources and cooperation among governments.
This distinction is important: a regional agreement creates obligations and mechanisms, but its existence alone does not guarantee that haze will be prevented.
The Role of the ASEAN Specialised Meteorological Centre
Monitoring is essential because smoke can move quickly and cross national boundaries.
The ASEAN Specialised Meteorological Centre (ASMC), based in Singapore, monitors land and forest fires and associated smoke haze across the region.
Its work helps governments understand the distribution of fire activity and assess atmospheric conditions that may influence smoke movement.
Regional monitoring can support decisions about:
- Where fire activity is increasing
- Which areas may be at risk of smoke exposure
- How atmospheric conditions may transport smoke
- Where additional monitoring or emergency action may be needed
Satellite observations are particularly valuable because many fires occur in remote areas.
However, satellite hotspots are indicators of thermal activity, not a complete count of confirmed fires or a direct measurement of burned area. Ground observations and other data remain important.
Why Fire Data Must Be Shared
When smoke crosses a border, affected countries need reliable information.
They may need to understand where fires are occurring, whether fire activity is increasing and which communities could experience deteriorating air quality.
Useful information includes:
- Satellite hotspot data
- Confirmed fire locations
- Burned-area estimates
- Weather and wind forecasts
- Air-quality measurements
- Public-health information
- Firefighting and emergency-response updates
Sharing this information can improve preparedness and reduce confusion.
It can also help distinguish verified observations from preliminary estimates or claims that have not yet been confirmed.
Why Regional Cooperation Can Be Difficult
Even when countries share a common interest in cleaner air, cooperation can be complicated.
Different national priorities
Governments must balance environmental protection with economic activity, employment, agriculture and other domestic priorities.
Different monitoring systems
Countries may use different data sources, measurement methods and reporting schedules.
Questions of responsibility
Identifying the origin of smoke is not always the same as proving who caused a fire or who is legally responsible.
Sovereignty and enforcement
A country generally exercises enforcement powers within its own jurisdiction. Neighboring countries cannot simply conduct domestic investigations or impose local penalties across the border without an appropriate legal basis.
Different levels of capacity
Countries may have different resources for fire prevention, monitoring, firefighting and public-health responses.
These challenges make sustained cooperation important, especially before severe haze develops.
Who Is Responsible When Haze Crosses Borders?
Responsibility requires careful analysis.
Smoke may originate in one country, but identifying the exact source of pollution and establishing legal liability are different tasks.
Investigators may need to determine:
- Where a fire began
- Whether the fire was deliberate or accidental
- Who controlled the land
- Whether laws or permit conditions were violated
- Whether a company or individual failed to meet legal obligations
- How the fire contributed to the resulting pollution
A hotspot near a plantation, for example, does not automatically prove that the plantation operator started the fire.
Reliable attribution requires evidence.
At the same time, uncertainty about one particular fire should not be used to dismiss the broader need for fire prevention and accountability.
Both principles matter for a credible regional response.
The Role of Companies and Agricultural Supply Chains
Some fires occur in landscapes shaped by agriculture, plantations and land clearing.
When land management is inadequate, the resulting smoke can affect people far beyond the original site.
Companies operating in fire-prone landscapes can reduce risk through:
- Preventing uncontrolled burning
- Maintaining firebreaks
- Monitoring their operating areas
- Protecting peatlands
- Preparing firefighting teams
- Investigating fire incidents
- Publishing credible environmental information
- Improving supply-chain traceability
Businesses purchasing agricultural commodities can also influence practices by setting sourcing standards and requiring suppliers to demonstrate compliance.
Where evidence establishes violations, accountability should follow the applicable legal process.
Regional haze prevention is therefore not only a government responsibility. It also involves land managers, producers, buyers and other actors in the supply chain.
Indonesia's Role in Regional Haze Prevention
Indonesia has a particularly important role because fires within its territory can contribute to smoke affecting other countries.
Domestic prevention measures can therefore deliver both national and regional benefits.
Priorities include protecting peatlands, preventing illegal burning, improving land-use planning, detecting fires early and strengthening enforcement.
Authorities also need to support local communities with practical alternatives to risky land-clearing practices.
Fire prevention is more likely to be sustainable when environmental rules are enforceable and communities have viable ways to earn a living.
Indonesia's role should not be reduced to the question of whether it accepts outside assistance during a crisis. The deeper challenge is building effective prevention and response systems before the next severe dry period.
What Can Neighboring ASEAN Countries Do?
Countries affected by haze also have practical roles.
They can strengthen regional monitoring, share air-quality and weather information, prepare health services and cooperate on emergency-response procedures.
They can also improve public communication so that people understand air-quality alerts and know how to reduce exposure.
Where businesses operating across borders are connected to high-risk supply chains, countries can examine how their own laws and procurement policies may encourage better environmental practices.
Regional cooperation is most useful when it combines prevention, information sharing and practical support rather than relying solely on diplomatic statements during a crisis.
The 2026 Haze Crisis and Regional Cooperation
The 2026 fire season has again highlighted the regional consequences of Indonesia's wildfires.
Reuters reported in October 2026 that smoke from persistent fires in Indonesia had affected air quality in neighboring countries, including Malaysia and Singapore. The reporting also described health concerns, school disruptions and renewed discussion of regional cooperation on transboundary haze.
A separate Reuters report published on October 12 said ASEAN foreign ministers were expected to discuss the transboundary haze issue ahead of the November summit.
These developments illustrate why haze remains a regional policy issue. They should not, however, be interpreted as proof that every affected area experienced the same pollution levels or that every fire had the same cause.
Conditions change over time, and current assessments should distinguish air-quality measurements, fire activity, burned-area estimates and verified causes.
Can ASEAN Eliminate Transboundary Haze?
No single agreement, technology or firefighting campaign can guarantee the elimination of haze.
The problem involves weather, land management, human behavior, ecological conditions and enforcement.
But regional cooperation can reduce the risks.
A stronger approach would combine:
Prevention: Reduce ignition sources and protect fire-prone ecosystems.
Preparedness: Prepare personnel, equipment and local communities before dry conditions intensify.
Monitoring: Improve access to timely, comparable fire and air-quality information.
Response: Coordinate assistance and share information when emergencies occur.
Accountability: Investigate fires and enforce applicable laws based on evidence.
Restoration: Rewet degraded peatlands and rehabilitate damaged landscapes.
Public health: Ensure people receive clear information and practical advice during severe haze.
These measures work best when national and regional institutions support one another.
Why Prevention Is More Effective Than Repeated Emergency Response
When smoke reaches another country, the fire may already have been burning for days or weeks.
Emergency measures can help contain the fire and reduce exposure, but they cannot immediately reverse all the damage.
Preventing the fire in the first place can avoid some of the costs associated with smoke, health impacts and disrupted economic activity.
This means the most important decisions may occur before the dry season becomes severe.
Peatland water management, land-use enforcement, community preparation and early detection may receive less attention than dramatic firefighting operations, but they are central to reducing recurring haze.
What a More Effective Regional Strategy Looks Like
A durable regional strategy would focus on several connected priorities.
1. Improve early warning
Combine satellite observations, weather forecasts and ground reports to identify rising fire danger.
2. Protect peatlands
Maintain appropriate water levels and prevent degradation in vulnerable landscapes.
3. Improve information sharing
Ensure countries can access timely, comparable information about fires and smoke.
4. Strengthen domestic enforcement
Investigate illegal burning and negligence through credible, transparent processes.
5. Support local communities
Provide practical fire-prevention assistance and sustainable land-management alternatives.
6. Improve corporate traceability
Help identify the origins of agricultural commodities and assess whether suppliers follow environmental rules.
7. Prepare for health emergencies
Use air-quality monitoring and clear public guidance to protect vulnerable people.
8. Maintain regional cooperation between crises
Work should continue throughout the year rather than intensifying only after haze has already crossed borders.
The Bigger Lesson for ASEAN
Transboundary haze reveals a central challenge of environmental governance: ecosystems and pollution do not follow political boundaries.
A fire may begin in one district, spread across a landscape and release smoke that affects several countries.
Each government can act within its own territory, but the full consequences may extend far beyond it.
That is why effective haze management requires cooperation without losing sight of domestic responsibility.
Regional agreements, monitoring systems and diplomatic discussions matter. So do local fire prevention, peatland restoration, responsible land management and enforcement.
The strongest response combines these approaches rather than treating them as alternatives.
Conclusion
Indonesia's wildfires and ASEAN haze are closely connected because smoke can turn a local fire into a regional public-health and environmental problem.
The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution provides a framework for countries to cooperate on prevention, monitoring, preparedness and emergency response. Yet lasting progress depends on how those commitments are implemented in practice.
Indonesia needs to reduce the conditions that allow landscapes to burn. Neighboring countries need reliable information and effective preparedness. Companies and land managers need to prevent fires and comply with environmental requirements. Regional institutions need to support coordination before, during and after severe fire seasons.
The ultimate objective is not simply to manage haze after it appears.
It is to reduce the fires that produce it.
Cleaner air across Southeast Asia begins with preventing fires at their source—and sustaining cooperation across the borders that smoke can cross.