China has a unique and time-honored architectural tradition dating back to the Zhou era 2,500 years ago. Discover the reasons behind its features and how Chinese architecture reflects Chinese culture. Since ancient times, several types of architecture have been built traditionally by the Chinese and were introduced here.
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| Chinese Classic Architecture |
General Features of Chinese Architecture
Since ancient times, people have built wooden buildings, buildings built with rammed earth, and buildings and structures built with stone or brick. Each of these types of construction has different features. They were built to withstand the frequent disasters of earthquakes, typhoons, and floods and to make them easier to rebuild. The building reflected and helped spread social and religious order along with survival and ease of renovation.
Preference for Timber Construction
Chinese culture originated thousands of years ago along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. In the watershed environment, seismic activity and frequent flood disasters encourage people to build flexibly using wood for most buildings.
The dense forest then becomes a ready-to-use wood supply. Wooden architecture changed its features slightly from the Zhou dynasty (1045–221 BC) to the early modern times when China adopted Western architecture.
The basic features of traditional timber architecture are stamped ground mats, load-bearing wooden pillars that are not sunk into the foundation, and slightly flexible brackets. These design features make the building earthquake and hurricane resistant and also allow for reconfiguration, expansion, and reconstruction if the building is damaged.
Heavy Overhanging Roof
A striking feature of traditional wooden buildings is the heavy ceramic tile roof with wide eaves and slightly upward angles. Builders considered it important to cover wooden buildings with overhanging roofs. This is to protect the building from weathering because wood rots more quickly when it is wet. The wide roof also provides shade in summer, and in winter, slanting sunlight warms the building.
As you can see in the pictures of the buildings in the Forbidden City, the roof is not supported by columns passing through the walls in traditional constructions. The roof may protrude from the wall for several meters. Since ancient times, durable ceramic tiles have been a favorite roofing material but they are heavy.
Rammed Earth Buildings
In places where clan compounds were in danger of attack, such as Hakka villages in Fujian, people built buildings from 土楼 (tǔlóu) earth. In these complexes, thick walls of rammed earth and sometimes brick and stone were built in windowless circles, and dwellings inside were built.
Interaction of Architecture and Culture
The various architectural styles built since the Zhou period reflect how various Chinese people have adapted to their environment over the centuries. The architectural design suits their needs and culture and helps spread social norms and order.
Timberyard Complex
In most areas, where the clan family felt secure enough to live permanently and faced frequent attacks and abundant wood, the clan built a log yard that was easy to modify over three generations. It was the clan's signature style of building and maintaining such a compound.
Since clans could more easily modify their residences as their needs changed over time, clan members found it more profitable to remain on clan property than to move to another piece of land to build a new compound. They can renovate and more easily repair disaster damage and avoid relocation, so family members must learn to live in closed compounds with little personal space throughout their lives even as their roles change with age.
This type of housing arrangement transmits ancient traditions from generation to generation that dictate how the family should interact and about the roles and responsibilities of members such as piety towards parents, respect for elders, the traditional role of women, etc. These compound pages are called Siheyuan (四合院) which means 'four combined pages.'
For an imperial palace or a farming clan courtyard building, several rules dictated the best way to build a complex: three sections along a north/south orientation, a symmetrical layout, one-story design, south entrance, and inner courtyard room.
South Facing Orientation
The south-facing orientation has practical reasons. When the courtyard was constructed with taller buildings to the north and shorter walls facing east and west, it allowed maximum sunlight to warm the buildings during the winter months when the sunlight tilted strongly from the south.
This is especially a feature of northern China.
This is why the doors and windows of the main building face south and open onto the inner courtyard, which lets in sunlight. So the main building, which housed the older members of the family who also needed a warmer place to live the most during the winter, was placed to the north of the courtyard.
On the south side of the complex, there are servants and guards near the main gate who are always stationed on the south side of the complex. This way, if the enemy entered, they would have to pass through the servants and guards first before they reached the residences of the children and the younger spouses on either side. The most protected building furthest from the gate is the main house for the older/rank members.
Symmetrical Layout
The symmetrical layout of the complex with the larger main building in the center of the complex flanked on all sides by smaller or symmetrically placed gates, helped protect the important main building from the elements or outside attack. So the south and side buildings block the wind and protect the north main building from arrows or other attacking projectiles.
One Floor Construction
Single-story buildings survive earthquakes and hurricane winds better than multi-storey buildings. It is more difficult to build a strong multi-storey building with wood. So for the residences of common people and the residences of wealthy clans, officials, and imperial clans, low buildings were the preferred style except in the southeastern corner of China, where there was little seismic activity.
There, if a clan could afford it, they could build a two-story building. Thick and high walls sometimes protected their buildings from the occasional typhoon.
In northern China, if a complex had a two-story building, the second floor was usually a balcony installed as part of the complex's north wall protecting the main residence from attack and the elements. This pavilion, which was higher than the other buildings, also strengthened the status of the higher elders.
Fengshui Design Principles
Fengshui is geomancy. These philosophical/religious principles dictate how to find, direct, and construct dwellings and cities to the best effect. It corresponds to the Taoist ideal of harmony. These design ideals were thought to promote the health, wealth, and happiness of the occupants, and by following these principles, the builders were thought to direct the flow of qi energy as part of Traditional Chinese Medicine practice.
Heaven Worship and South-North Orientation
Since ancient times, it was believed that Heaven is at the North Star, and it was here that the supreme god who is the originator of the earth, China and all people's lives. They believed this was because Heaven's stars seemed to revolve around it.
So within their compound, the clan head was positioned closer to Heaven than anyone else, and they also saw themselves as representatives of the clan to Heaven. The northern part of the complex is also considered the most important part for this religious reason.
The south-north orientation and religious and social order are evident in constructing the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven, and the Ming Tombs. Heaven worship is most evident in the design of the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven.
Hierarchical Layout
Their choice of the compound layout was for more than just practical reasons. Their design and layout tended to reinforce social and religious notions and clan rulers' dominant status and role.
Since ancient times, society has been stratified hierarchically as espoused by the teachings of Confucius (c. 551–479 BC) and other ancient teachers. Throughout history, society was highly hierarchical with emperors or kings at the top, parents served by children in the filial tradition, and servants or enslaved people at the bottom. The rulers of clans and nations aim to elevate their status by owning the largest and most magnificent residences.
Reflecting the traditional social code, according to filial tradition, clan compounds were usually divided into three parts if they could afford the fees. In the north of the most important choices, the clan heads, usually the oldest, the grandparents, live in the largest and tallest buildings. Their children lived in the center with their children, and less important relatives, servants, and guards lived in the smallest part of the south.
Clan lords almost always live in the tallest and biggest buildings to impress their dominance. It was against their rules for other people of lower rank to live in the same or larger-sized residence. They would sit in the highest seats and have the largest living quarters, which psychologically suggested subservience to those of lower rank. The lowest class was placed in the smallest dwellings so that they would feel that they were subservient and less socially important, and thus the design of the structure served to preserve social order.
The Main Role of the Emperor
Ancient Chinese imperial buildings included palaces, government offices, and military defense projects. Imperial dynasties exercised political control over certain eras by building the biggest and most grandiose structures. In general, their architectural style is formal and solemn, and they are centrally located and built on a large scale to propagate the formal hierarchical order of society.
The Temple of Heaven is one of the three tallest buildings in Beijing at 38 meters (125 ft) high when it was built by the Ming Court. It is the same height as the two tallest buildings in the Forbidden City, the Hall of Supreme Harmony and the Wu Gate, which both measure about 38 meters (125 feet high) at the top of the roof.
The emperor's Hall of Supreme Harmony was the largest and tallest building in the Forbidden City for palace functions, and to its north was the inner courtyard of the emperor's residence, the second largest building in the palace complex, the Palace of Heavenly Purity, built initially to be the residence of emperors. However, emperors started using it in the Qing Dynasty for other purposes. The smaller empress palace is located to the north.
Twice a year, the emperors would go to the Temple of Heaven to perform sacrifices and special ceremonies deemed essential for the survival and blessing of their realm. The extreme size of the emperor's buildings and the Temple of Heaven marked the importance that emperors worshiped as gods, and the importance of their religious function in society. Others were not allowed to construct buildings larger than theirs in the rest of the empire.
Other Major Architectural Types
Timber construction was the most common architectural style for commoner residences and imperial dynasties, but it was not the only traditional style. They usually used rammed earth, bricks or stones to build towers, mausoleums, fortifications, bridges and other types of architecture. Minority ethnic groups have their own preferred architectural style.
Wall
Ancient Chinese (imperial) architecture began to develop very rapidly from the Han Dynasty (206 BC– 220 AD) onwards. By this point, the builders had mastered the skills of compacting earth for city walls and the Great Wall and knew how to burn tiles and build with cut stone.
During the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties, kiln firing techniques improved, and brick structures became more popular.
Mausoleum and Tombs
Although inhabited buildings usually use wood, mausoleums and tombs use stones and bricks to make permanent buildings. The dead don't need to overhaul their graves. So it makes more sense to build a permanent structure to house their remains.
Tombs and tombs were designed and placed according to Feng Shui principles, so most Chinese tombs were built on or near mountains. Other distinguishing features include pathways leading to structures.
Chinese Landscape Garden
The architecture of the gardens and courtyards was considered very important for the complexes of the imperial clan, officials and wealthy clans. Fengshui principles determine the layout to control the cosmological and health effects of the various garden elements.
Common People's Residence
The architectural style of traditional Chinese dwellings is functional and appropriate to local conditions.
For example, in Southwestern China, bamboo houses are well suited to the humid environment and local resources.
In the northern part of Shaanxi Province, where winter weather is cold and dry, loess-carved dwellings were good at retaining heat and cheap to build.
Stone Bridge
During the Sui Dynasty and afterward, some builders demonstrated special skills in building stone bridges that withstood centuries of earthquakes, floods, and wars.
The 1,400-year-old Zhaozhou Bridge is celebrated as the oldest standing bridge in China and the oldest open-spandrel stone bridge in the world. This is remarkable because iron supports and stabilizes the sections, allowing the bridge to adjust slightly to earthquakes, soil subsidence and environmental changes.
Religious Buildings
China has four official religions. Taoism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity have a long history in China.
Since the Chinese imperial palace contributed to the introduction of Buddhism in China, Buddhist buildings in China usually follow the imperial construction style, which is majestic and majestic.
Taoist buildings in China are closer to the commoner's building style than to other religious buildings. They are usually built compactly with bricks to make them strong enough to last a long time.
Muslim architecture in China blends traditional Chinese and Middle Eastern styles.
As for Christianity, most churches in China follow Western architectural designs.
Elegance and Decoration
There has always been an emphasis on beautiful style. Existing examples of ancient Chinese architecture are highly praised for their elegant profiles and varied features, such as overhanging roofs, upturned roof angles, and various roof shapes.
The unique exterior not only fulfills a practical function but also has an extraordinary appearance. They are a fine example of practicality and beauty combined.
Balanced Symmetry
Most traditional Chinese buildings strictly follow the principle of centering on an axis with symmetrical wings. The most prominent structure was in the center; on either side, they built smaller buildings as needed. Along with the practical reasons for the symmetrical design described above, such as for protection, the style complied with their aesthetic standards of harmony, balance, and symmetry dating back to the Shang dynasty.
Beautiful Decoration
Architects in ancient China paid special attention to color and decoration, from entire buildings to specific parts. They use different colors or paintings according to the function of a particular building or local customs. Buildings are often quite colorful.
Carved beams, painted rafters, various patterns, inscribed boards, couplets hung on pillars and frescoes add a colorful and beautiful style to the interior.
Stone lions, screen walls, ornamental columns, and flowers are used to decorate the exterior of the building.
Modern Chinese Architecture
Today, only a few buildings are built of wood in Chinese cities. Modern buildings are built with less expensive concrete and steel. The Chinese have adopted Western building methods.
However, they may still design buildings according to traditional styles and utilize feng shui concepts to direct and design buildings. For example, modern apartment complexes usually surround a central yard/playground.