Bosnia and Herzegovina is a Southeast European country located on the Balkan Peninsula. It shares borders with Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to the north and southwest. It also has a small coastline of 20 kilometres (12 miles) on the Adriatic Sea, with the town of Neum being its only coastal access. The country has a moderate continental climate with hot summers and cold, snowy winters. The terrain is mostly mountainous in the central and eastern regions, moderately hilly in the northwest, and predominantly flat in the northeast. The smaller, southern region of Herzegovina has a Mediterranean climate and is also mainly mountainous.
The country's name comes from the two historical regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a vaguely defined border between them. The name Bosnia is derived from the Bosna River, which cuts through the region. The name Herzegovina means "the land of the duke" and refers to the medieval duchy of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, who ruled most of the region in the 15th century. The two regions were united under the Ottoman Empire, and later became part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Yugoslavia, and finally an independent state in 1992.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a multiethnic country, with three main ethnic groups: Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats. According to the 2013 census, Bosniaks make up 50.1% of the population, Serbs 30.8%, and Croats 15.4%. The remaining 3.7% are others, such as Roma, Jews, Albanians, and Turks. The country has no official language, but the de facto languages are Bosnian, Serbian, and Croatian, which are all variants of Serbo-Croatian. The country also has two official scripts: Latin and Cyrillic. The majority of the population is Muslim (51%), followed by Christian (46%), of which 31% are Serbian Orthodox and 15% are Catholic. There are also small minorities of other religions or no religion (3%).
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federal parliamentary republic, composed of two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers 51% of the country and is mostly inhabited by Bosniaks and Croats. The Republika Srpska covers 49% of the country and is mostly inhabited by Serbs. The two entities have their own governments, parliaments, and police forces, but share some institutions at the state level, such as the presidency, the council of ministers, and the parliament. The presidency consists of three members, one from each ethnic group, who rotate every eight months as the chairperson. The council of ministers is the executive branch, headed by the prime minister. The parliament is the legislative branch, divided into two chambers: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples has 15 delegates, five from each ethnic group, and the House of Representatives has 42 members, elected by proportional representation.
The country also has a third, self-governing district, called Brčko, which is located in the northeast and has a mixed population of all ethnic groups. Brčko has its own government, assembly, and judiciary, and is under the supervision of an international arbitrator. The country is also subject to the oversight of a high representative, who is an international civilian official appointed by the Peace Implementation Council, a body of countries and organizations that support the peace process in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The high representative has the authority to dismiss elected and non-elected officials, impose laws, and annul decisions that are deemed to violate the Dayton Agreement, the peace treaty that ended the Bosnian War in 1995.
The Bosnian War was a brutal conflict that lasted from 1992 to 1995, and resulted from the breakup of Yugoslavia and the declaration of independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The war involved the three main ethnic groups, as well as neighboring countries and international forces. The war was marked by ethnic cleansing, mass killings, rape, torture, and siege. The war claimed the lives of about 100,000 people, and displaced more than 2 million. The war also damaged the country's infrastructure, economy, and social fabric. The Dayton Agreement, signed in Paris on December 14, 1995, ended the war and established the current political structure of the country. The agreement also divided the country into two entities, and deployed a multinational peacekeeping force to ensure security and stability.
Bosnia and Herzegovina faces many challenges in its post-war recovery and development. The country suffers from political instability, corruption, ethnic division, unemployment, poverty, and environmental issues. The country also aspires to join the European Union and NATO, but has to meet certain criteria and reforms to achieve this goal. The country has made some progress in advancing its economy, human rights, democracy, and reconciliation, but still has a long way to go to overcome its past traumas and present difficulties.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country with a rich and diverse culture, history, and natural beauty. The country has a legacy of various civilizations and influences, such as Illyrian, Roman, Byzantine, Slavic, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Yugoslav. The country has many cultural and historical monuments, such as the Old Bridge of Mostar, the Sarajevo Tunnel, the Srebrenica Memorial, and the Stećci, medieval tombstones. The country also has a vibrant and creative arts scene, with famous writers, poets, musicians, filmmakers, and artists. The country is also known for its cuisine, which is a blend of Mediterranean, Turkish, and Central European flavors. The country has many natural attractions, such as mountains, rivers, lakes, waterfalls, and forests, that offer opportunities for hiking, skiing, rafting, and camping.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country that has endured much suffering and hardship, but also has much potential and hope. The country is a mosaic of different cultures, religions, and ethnicities, that coexist in a complex and fragile balance. The country is a place of contrasts, where the past and the present, the tradition and the modernity, the war and the peace, collide and converge. The country is a land of beauty, resilience, and diversity, that strives to heal its wounds and achieve its dreams.
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| Bosnia and Herzegovina flag and cultural symbols |
History and Ethnic Relations
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a long and turbulent history that shaped its current ethnic composition and relations. The earliest inhabitants of the region were the Illyrians, an Indo-European people who lived in the Balkans since the Bronze Age. The Illyrians were conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC, and became part of the Roman province of Illyricum. The Romans brought their culture, language, law, and religion to the region, and also built roads, bridges, aqueducts, and cities. The most famous Roman city in Bosnia and Herzegovina is Sarajevo, which was founded as a military outpost in the 1st century AD.
The Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century AD, and the region was invaded by various barbarian tribes, such as the Goths, Huns, Avars, and Slavs. The Slavs were the most numerous and influential, and gradually assimilated the native Illyrian population. The Slavs also adopted Christianity, which was introduced by the Byzantine Empire, the successor of the eastern Roman Empire. The Slavs formed several principalities in the region, such as Bosnia, Rascia, Travunia, and Zahumlje, which often fought among themselves or with their neighbors.
In the 9th century, the region was influenced by two powerful states: the Bulgarian Empire and the Frankish Empire. The Bulgarians expanded their territory to the south and east, and converted many Slavs to the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Franks expanded their territory to the north and west, and converted many Slavs to the Roman Catholic Church. The region became a religious and cultural borderland between the two branches of Christianity, which later contributed to the ethnic differentiation of the Slavs.
In the 12th century, the region was invaded by the Hungarians, who established their rule over most of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Hungarians faced resistance from the local Slavic nobility, who asserted their autonomy and independence. The most notable Slavic ruler was Ban Kulin, who ruled Bosnia from 1180 to 1204. He is remembered for his wise and tolerant policies, especially his charter of rights and freedoms, which granted religious liberty to all his subjects, including the Bogomils, a Christian sect that was considered heretical by both the Orthodox and Catholic Churches.
In the 14th century, the region was invaded by the Ottomans, who established their rule over most of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the 15th century. The Ottomans brought their culture, language, law, and religion to the region, and also built mosques, schools, bridges, and baths. The most famous Ottoman city in Bosnia and Herzegovina is Mostar, which was founded as a trading center in the 15th century. The Ottomans also introduced Islam to the region, which was adopted by many Slavs, especially the Bogomils, who saw it as a continuation of their monotheistic beliefs. The Slavs who converted to Islam became known as Bosniaks, while the Slavs who remained Christian became known as Serbs and Croats, depending on their affiliation with the Orthodox or Catholic Church.
In the 19th century, the region was affected by the rise of nationalism and the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The Serbs and Croats sought to unite with their co-religionists in neighboring states, such as Serbia and Croatia, while the Bosniaks sought to preserve their distinct identity and autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. The region also became a battleground between the great powers of Europe, such as Austria-Hungary and Russia, who competed for influence and territory in the Balkans. In 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary, which annexed it in 1908. This provoked a crisis among the European powers, and also sparked a nationalist movement among the Serbs, who wanted to liberate Bosnia and Herzegovina from foreign rule. The most radical group was the Young Bosnia, which was responsible for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo in 1914. This event triggered the outbreak of World War I, which ended with the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
In 1918, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. The new state was dominated by the Serbs, who imposed a centralized and authoritarian regime that marginalized the other ethnic groups. The Bosniaks, in particular, faced discrimination and repression, as they were considered as "Turks" or "Muslims" by the Serbs and Croats, who regarded them as traitors or foreigners. The region also suffered from economic underdevelopment and social unrest, which led to the rise of various political parties and movements, such as the Communist Party, the Muslim Organization, and the Croatian Peasant Party.
In 1941, Bosnia and Herzegovina was invaded by Nazi Germany and its allies, who divided it into several puppet states, such as the Independent State of Croatia, the Serbian State, and the Italian Zone. The region was subjected to brutal occupation and genocide, as the Nazis and their collaborators persecuted and killed the Jews, Roma, Serbs, and Bosniaks, who were considered as "inferior" or "enemy" races. The region also witnessed a fierce resistance movement, led by the Communist Partisans, who fought against the occupiers and their collaborators, such as the Ustashe, the Chetniks, and the Handzar Division. The Partisans were supported by the Allies, and eventually liberated the region in 1945.
In 1945, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was led by the Communist Party and its leader, Josip Broz Tito. The new state was based on the principles of federalism, socialism, and self-management, which granted a degree of autonomy and equality to the six constituent republics, including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The new state also promoted the idea of "brotherhood and unity" among the different ethnic groups, and recognized the Bosniaks as a distinct nation, along with the Serbs and Croats. The region enjoyed a period of relative peace, stability, and prosperity, as well as cultural and artistic flourishing, under the socialist system.
In 1980, Tito died, and the socialist system began to collapse. The region was affected by the rise of nationalism and the decline of communism, which led to the emergence of various political parties and movements, such as the Party of Democratic Action, the Serbian Democratic Party, and the Croatian Democratic Union. The region also became a victim of the disintegration of Yugoslavia, which started with the secession of Slovenia and Croatia in 1991. In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its independence, which was recognized by the international community, but opposed by the Serbs and Croats, who wanted to remain part of Yugoslavia or join their co-religionists in neighboring states. The region plunged into a bloody war, which lasted from 1992 to 1995, and involved the three main ethnic groups, as well as neighboring countries and international forces. The war was marked by ethnic cleansing, mass killings, rape, torture, and siege. The war claimed the lives of about 100,000 people, and displaced more than 2 million. The war also damaged the country's infrastructure, economy, and social fabric. The war ended with the Dayton Agreement, which was signed in Paris on December 14, 1995. The agreement established the current political structure of the country, which is based on the principles of federalism, democracy, and human rights. The agreement also divided the country into two entities, and deployed a multinational peacekeeping force to ensure security and stability.
Bosnia and Herzegovina faces many challenges in its post-war recovery and development. The country suffers from political instability, corruption, ethnic division, unemployment, poverty, and environmental issues. The country also aspires to join the European Union and NATO, but has to meet certain criteria and reforms to achieve this goal. The country has made some progress in advancing its economy, human rights, democracy, and reconciliation, but still has a long way to go to overcome its past traumas and present difficulties.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country with a rich and diverse culture, history, and natural beauty. The country has a legacy of various civilizations and influences, such as Illyrian, Roman, Byzantine, Slavic, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and Yugoslav. The country has many cultural and historical monuments, such as the Old Bridge of Mostar, the Sarajevo Tunnel, the Srebrenica Memorial, and the Stećci, medieval tombstones. The country also has a vibrant and creative arts scene, with famous writers, poets, musicians, filmmakers, and artists. The country is also known for its cuisine, which is a blend of Mediterranean, Turkish, and Central European flavors. The country has many natural attractions, such as mountains, rivers, lakes, waterfalls, and forests, that offer opportunities for hiking, skiing, rafting, and camping.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country that has endured much suffering and hardship, but also has much potential and hope. The country is a mosaic of different cultures, religions, and ethnicities, that coexist in a complex and fragile balance. The country is a place of contrasts, where the past and the present, the tradition and the modernity, the war and the peace, collide and converge. The country is a land of beauty, resilience, and diversity,
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a diverse and dynamic urban landscape, reflecting its complex and turbulent history. The country has four major cities: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Mostar, and Tuzla, which are the political, economic, cultural, and educational centers of the country. The country also has many smaller towns and villages, which are often clustered around natural resources, such as rivers, lakes, or mines. The country's urbanization rate is about 50%, which means that half of the population lives in urban areas, and half in rural areas.
The country's architecture is a blend of various styles and influences, such as Illyrian, Roman, Byzantine, Slavic, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Yugoslav, and modern. The country has many architectural monuments, such as the Old Bridge of Mostar, the Sarajevo Tunnel, the Srebrenica Memorial, and the Stećci, medieval tombstones. The country also has many mosques, churches, synagogues, and temples, which represent the diversity of religions and cultures in the country. The country's architecture also reflects the impact of the war, as many buildings were damaged or destroyed, and some were rebuilt or restored, while others were left as ruins or memorials.
The country's use of space is influenced by its geography, climate, and ethnicity. The country has a varied and rugged terrain, which limits the availability and accessibility of land. The country also has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold, snowy winters, which affects the design and construction of buildings. The country also has a multiethnic population, which affects the distribution and segregation of urban and rural areas. The country's use of space also reflects the legacy of the war, as many areas were divided or isolated by front lines, minefields, or checkpoints, and some were ethnically cleansed or resettled.
The country's urban and rural areas have different characteristics and challenges. The urban areas are more modern, cosmopolitan, and diverse, but also more crowded, polluted, and congested. The urban areas offer more opportunities for education, employment, and entertainment, but also more competition, inequality, and crime. The rural areas are more traditional, conservative, and homogeneous, but also more spacious, natural, and peaceful. The rural areas offer more resources for agriculture, forestry, and mining, but also more isolation, poverty, and underdevelopment.
The country's urban and rural areas also have different social and cultural norms and values. The urban areas are more secular, liberal, and individualistic, but also more tolerant, open, and creative. The urban areas are more influenced by the global trends and media, but also more aware of the local issues and problems. The rural areas are more religious, nationalist, and collectivist, but also more loyal, hospitable, and resilient. The rural areas are more influenced by the traditional customs and folklore, but also more attached to the ancestral land and heritage.
Food and Economy
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a diverse and delicious cuisine, reflecting its multicultural and multiethnic heritage. The country's cuisine is influenced by various cuisines, such as Mediterranean, Turkish, and Central European, and also has its own distinctive dishes and specialties. The country's cuisine is based on meat, dairy, bread, vegetables, and fruits, and uses spices such as salt, pepper, paprika, garlic, onion, and parsley. The country's cuisine also varies by region, as different areas have different climatic and agricultural conditions, and different ethnic and religious preferences.
Some of the most common and popular dishes in the country are:
- Ćevapi: grilled minced meat sausages, usually made of beef or lamb, served in a flatbread called somun, with chopped onion, sour cream, and ajvar, a red pepper relish.
- Burek: a savory pastry made of thin layers of dough filled with cheese, meat, spinach, or potatoes, and baked in a round pan. Burek is usually eaten for breakfast or as a snack, and is often accompanied by yogurt.
- Dolma: stuffed vegetables, such as peppers, tomatoes, zucchini, or cabbage, filled with rice, meat, and herbs, and cooked in a tomato sauce. Dolma is usually eaten for lunch or dinner, and is often served with bread and salad.
- Begova čorba: a creamy soup made of chicken, vegetables, and flour, and flavored with lemon and egg. Begova čorba is named after Gazi Husrev-beg, a 16th-century Ottoman governor of Bosnia, who allegedly liked this soup very much.
- Baklava: a sweet pastry made of thin layers of dough filled with chopped nuts, such as walnuts, pistachios, or almonds, and soaked in a syrup of sugar, water, and lemon. Baklava is usually eaten for dessert or as a treat, and is often served with coffee or tea.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a mixed and transitional economy, which is recovering from the war and transitioning from socialism to capitalism. The country's economy is based on various sectors, such as industry, agriculture, services, and tourism. The country's economy is also influenced by various factors, such as politics, ethnicity, geography, and international relations. The country's economy faces many challenges and opportunities, such as unemployment, poverty, corruption, inequality, development, integration, and innovation.
Some of the most important and promising sectors in the country are:
- Industry: The country has a strong industrial base, inherited from the socialist era, which produces goods such as metal, wood, textiles, chemicals, and food. The country also has a potential for developing new industries, such as energy, automotive, and information technology. The country's industry is hampered by outdated technology, lack of investment, and environmental issues.
- Agriculture: The country has a rich agricultural potential, due to its fertile land, favorable climate, and abundant water resources. The country produces crops such as wheat, corn, potatoes, fruits, and vegetables, and also raises livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry. The country also has a tradition of producing dairy products, such as cheese, yogurt, and cream, and alcoholic beverages, such as wine, rakija, and beer. The country's agriculture is hindered by low productivity, fragmentation, and subsidies.
- Services: The country has a growing service sector, which accounts for more than half of the GDP and employs more than half of the workforce. The country provides services such as trade, transport, communication, education, health, and finance. The country also has a potential for developing new services, such as banking, insurance, and consulting. The country's service sector is boosted by the increasing domestic demand, foreign investment, and regional cooperation.
- Tourism: The country has a huge tourism potential, due to its natural beauty, cultural diversity, and historical legacy. The country has many tourist attractions, such as mountains, rivers, lakes, waterfalls, and forests, that offer opportunities for hiking, skiing, rafting, and camping. The country also has many cultural and historical monuments, such as the Old Bridge of Mostar, the Sarajevo Tunnel, the Srebrenica Memorial, and the Stećci, medieval tombstones. The country also has a vibrant and creative arts scene, with famous writers, poets, musicians, filmmakers, and artists. The country's tourism is enhanced by the improving infrastructure, security, and promotion.
Social Stratification
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a complex and dynamic social structure, reflecting its historical and contemporary realities. The country's social stratification is influenced by various factors, such as ethnicity, religion, class, gender, and region. The country's social stratification also varies by context, as different groups have different statuses and roles in different spheres of life, such as politics, economy, culture, and family.
The most salient and controversial factor of social stratification in the country is ethnicity, which is closely related to religion. The country has three main ethnic groups: Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats, who are also associated with Islam, Serbian Orthodoxy, and Catholicism, respectively. The ethnic groups have different histories, cultures, languages, and identities, and often have conflicting interests and aspirations. The ethnic groups also have different degrees of power and influence in the country, as they are represented by different political parties and institutions, and have different access to resources and opportunities. The ethnic groups also have different levels of integration and segregation in the country, as they live in different areas, attend different schools, and consume different media.
The ethnic factor of social stratification is also complicated by the presence of other ethnic groups, such as Roma, Jews, Albanians, and Turks, who have their own distinct cultures, religions, and identities, and often face discrimination and marginalization in the country. The ethnic factor of social stratification is also challenged by the emergence of new identities, such as Bosnians, Yugoslavs, Europeans, and cosmopolitans, who transcend the traditional ethnic boundaries and embrace a more inclusive and diverse vision of the country.
Another important factor of social stratification in the country is class, which is closely related to economy. The country has a wide and growing gap between the rich and the poor, which is exacerbated by the war, the transition, and the globalization. The country has a small and powerful elite, who control the political and economic spheres of the country, and have access to wealth, education, and connections. The country also has a large and vulnerable mass, who struggle with unemployment, poverty, and insecurity, and have limited access to health, justice, and participation. The country also has a shrinking and precarious middle class, who aspire to improve their living standards and social mobility, and have access to some basic services and opportunities.
The class factor of social stratification is also influenced by the different sectors and regions of the economy, which have different levels of development and potential. The country has a strong and promising service sector, especially in tourism, trade, and finance, which offers more opportunities for employment, income, and innovation. The country also has a weak and declining industrial sector, especially in metal, wood, and textile, which suffers from low productivity, lack of investment, and environmental issues. The country also has a diverse and untapped agricultural sector, especially in wheat, corn, and fruits, which faces challenges of fragmentation, subsidies, and competition. The country also has different regions, such as the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska, which have different levels of autonomy and prosperity, and different relations with the central government and the international community.
Another significant factor of social stratification in the country is gender, which is closely related to culture. The country has a patriarchal and traditional society, which assigns different roles and expectations to men and women, and values masculinity and femininity differently. The country also has a changing and modernizing society, which challenges and transforms the gender norms and relations, and creates new opportunities and problems for men and women. The country also has a diverse and complex society, which accommodates different perspectives and practices on gender, and respects the rights and freedoms of men and women.
The gender factor of social stratification is also affected by the different spheres and stages of life, which have different implications and outcomes for men and women. The country has a public and political sphere, which is dominated by men, who hold most of the positions of power and influence in the country, and have more access to resources and opportunities. The country also has a private and domestic sphere, which is dominated by women, who bear most of the responsibilities and burdens of the household, and have less access to resources and opportunities.
The country also has a social and cultural sphere, which is shared by men and women, who participate in various activities and events, such as sports, arts, and festivals, and have different access to recognition and expression. The country also has different stages of life, such as childhood, adulthood, and old age, which have different challenges and prospects for men and women, such as education, employment, health, and retirement.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country with a complex and dynamic social structure, which is influenced by various factors, such as ethnicity, religion, class, gender, and region. The country's social structure also varies by context, as different groups have different statuses and roles in different spheres of life, such as politics, economy, culture, and family. The country's social structure also faces many challenges and opportunities, such as conflict, inequality, discrimination, development, integration, and diversity.
Political Life
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a complex and unique political system, which is a result of the 1995 Dayton Agreement that ended the Bosnian War. The country is a federal parliamentary republic, composed of two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska, which have their own governments, parliaments, and police forces, but share some institutions at the state level, such as the presidency, the council of ministers, and the parliament. The country also has a third, self-governing district, called Brčko, which is located in the northeast and has a mixed population of all ethnic groups. The country is also subject to the oversight of a high representative, who is an international civilian official appointed by the Peace Implementation Council, a body of countries and organizations that support the peace process in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of three members, one from each ethnic group: Bosniak, Serb, and Croat, who are directly elected by the citizens of their respective entities for a four-year term. The presidency rotates every eight months among the three members, who act as the head of state and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The presidency also nominates the chair of the council of ministers, who is the head of government and the chief executive officer of the country. The council of ministers is the executive branch, composed of nine ministers and two deputy ministers, who are responsible for conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy, as well as coordinating the activities of the entities. The council of ministers is accountable to the parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is the legislative branch.
The parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into two chambers: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples has 15 delegates, five from each ethnic group, who are appointed by the parliaments of the entities for a four-year term. The House of Peoples has the power to veto any legislation that violates the vital national interests of any ethnic group, as defined by the Constitutional Court. The House of Representatives has 42 members, 28 from the Federation and 14 from the Republika Srpska, who are directly elected by the citizens of their respective entities for a four-year term. The House of Representatives has the power to pass laws, approve the budget, ratify treaties, and appoint judges and other officials.
The political life of Bosnia and Herzegovina is characterized by a high degree of fragmentation, polarization, and deadlock, as the three main ethnic groups have different and often conflicting interests and aspirations. The political parties are mostly organized along ethnic lines, and often form coalitions based on ethnic affiliation rather than ideological orientation. The political institutions are often paralyzed by disputes and vetoes, and lack the capacity and legitimacy to implement reforms and decisions. The political culture is marked by mistrust, intolerance, and nationalism, and lacks a common vision and identity for the country.
The political life of Bosnia and Herzegovina is also influenced by various external actors, such as the European Union, NATO, the United States, Russia, Turkey, and neighboring countries, who have different roles and interests in the country. The European Union and NATO are the main drivers of the country's integration and stabilization, and offer incentives and conditionality for the country to meet the criteria and reforms required for membership. The United States is the main guarantor of the country's security and sovereignty, and provides political and military support for the country. Russia is the main ally of the Republika Srpska, and opposes any changes to the Dayton Agreement or the country's territorial integrity. Turkey is the main partner of the Bosniaks, and promotes cultural and economic cooperation with the country. The neighboring countries, such as Serbia, Croatia, and Montenegro, have historical and ethnic ties with the country, and also have interests and influence in the country's affairs.
The political life of Bosnia and Herzegovina faces many challenges and opportunities, such as constitutional reform, economic development, social cohesion, and regional cooperation. The country needs to reform its constitution, which is based on the Dayton Agreement, and which is widely seen as outdated, inefficient, and discriminatory. The country needs to develop its economy, which is based on a mixed and transitional system, and which suffers from unemployment, poverty, corruption, and inequality. The country needs to foster its social cohesion, which is based on a multiethnic and multicultural society, and which suffers from division, segregation, and discrimination. The country needs to enhance its regional cooperation, which is based on a shared and strategic interest, and which offers benefits and opportunities for the country.
Social Welfare and Change Programs
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a fragmented and inadequate social welfare system, which is unable to meet the needs and rights of its citizens, especially the poor, the vulnerable, and the marginalized. The country's social welfare system is divided into two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska, which have their own laws, policies, and institutions, but lack coordination and harmonization at the state level. The country's social welfare system is also influenced by various external actors, such as the European Union, the United Nations, and the World Bank, who provide financial and technical assistance, but also impose conditionality and standards for reform.
The country's social welfare system consists of various programs and services, such as social assistance, social insurance, social services, and social protection. The country's social welfare system faces many challenges and opportunities, such as budget constraints, institutional capacity, legal framework, targeting mechanisms, coverage and adequacy, quality and accessibility, and monitoring and evaluation.
Some of the main social welfare and change programs in the country are:
Social assistance: cash transfers and in-kind benefits to support the poor, the vulnerable, and people with disabilities. The country spends about 4.5% of its GDP on social assistance, which is higher than the regional average, but most of the funds are allocated to war-related benefits, such as veterans' pensions and disability allowances, which are not means-tested and have low poverty impact. The country has a limited number of poverty-targeted programs, such as family allowances, child benefits, and minimum income guarantees, which have low coverage, low benefit levels, and high administrative costs. The country also has a complex and fragmented administrative system, with different eligibility criteria, application procedures, and payment methods across entities and cantons. The country needs to reform its social assistance system, by shifting funds from war-related to poverty-targeted programs, expanding the coverage and adequacy of family and child benefits, improving the targeting and delivery mechanisms, and harmonizing the rules and regulations across the country.
Social insurance: contributory schemes to protect workers and their dependents from income loss due to old age, disability, death, sickness, maternity, unemployment, and work-related injuries. The country spends about 12% of its GDP on social insurance, which is lower than the regional average, but faces sustainability and adequacy challenges. The country has a pay-as-you-go pension system, which covers about 60% of the population, but provides low replacement rates, due to the ageing of the population, the low labor force participation, the high informality, and the generous early retirement provisions. The country also has a health insurance system, which covers about 90% of the population, but suffers from low quality, inefficiency, and inequity, due to the underfunding, the fragmentation, the corruption, and the lack of regulation and coordination. The country also has an unemployment insurance system, which covers about 40% of the unemployed, but provides low benefits, short duration, and weak incentives, due to the low contribution rates, the high unemployment, and the poor enforcement. The country needs to reform its social insurance system, by increasing the contribution rates and collection, raising the retirement age and tightening the eligibility criteria, improving the quality and efficiency of health care services, and strengthening the link between unemployment benefits and active labor market programs.
Social services: non-financial support and care for people with special needs, such as children, the elderly, people with disabilities, victims of violence, and refugees and internally displaced persons. The country spends about 0.5% of its GDP on social services, which is lower than the regional average, but has a large and diverse network of providers, such as public, private, and non-governmental organizations. The country has a range of social services, such as residential care, home care, day care, counseling, and legal aid, but faces quality and accessibility challenges. The country has a weak institutional framework, with unclear roles and responsibilities, insufficient standards and regulations, and inadequate monitoring and evaluation. The country also has a low capacity, with limited human and financial resources, outdated infrastructure and equipment, and insufficient training and supervision. The country needs to improve its social services system, by developing a comprehensive and coherent strategy, enhancing the coordination and cooperation among stakeholders, increasing the funding and efficiency, and promoting the deinstitutionalization and community-based care.
Social protection: integrated and comprehensive approach to prevent, reduce, and cope with the risks and vulnerabilities that affect people's well-being and dignity. The country has a low level of social protection, which is reflected in the high poverty, inequality, and exclusion rates, and the low human development and social inclusion indicators. The country has a limited social protection system, which is fragmented, inefficient, and ineffective, and fails to address the multidimensional and interrelated causes and consequences of poverty and vulnerability. The country has a weak social protection system, which is influenced by the political, economic, and social factors, such as the ethnic division, the institutional complexity, the fiscal constraints, and the cultural norms. The country needs to strengthen its social protection system, by adopting a holistic and human rights-based approach, aligning with the international and European standards and principles, and implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a vibrant and diverse civil society, which plays an important role in the country's development and democratization. The country has thousands of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and other associations, such as foundations, networks, unions, and professional associations, which operate in various fields and sectors, such as human rights, peacebuilding, humanitarian aid, education, health, environment, culture, and sports. The country's civil society is influenced by various factors, such as history, politics, ethnicity, religion, and international relations. The country's civil society also faces many challenges and opportunities, such as funding, capacity, legitimacy, participation, and cooperation.
The country's civil society has a long and rich history, dating back to the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian periods, when various religious, charitable, and cultural organizations were established. The country's civil society also flourished during the socialist era, when various social, economic, and political organizations were created, such as trade unions, youth organizations, women's organizations, and self-management councils. The country's civil society also emerged during the war and the transition, when various humanitarian, human rights, and peacebuilding organizations were formed, often with the support of the international community.
The country's civil society has a complex and dynamic relationship with the state and the society. The country's civil society often acts as a watchdog, advocate, and partner of the state, monitoring its performance, demanding its accountability, and collaborating with its institutions. The country's civil society also acts as a service provider, educator, and innovator of the society, delivering various programs and projects, raising awareness and knowledge, and creating new solutions and opportunities. The country's civil society also acts as a bridge, mediator, and catalyst of the different ethnic, religious, and political groups, fostering dialogue, reconciliation, and cooperation.
The country's civil society has a diverse and active membership and participation, involving various actors and stakeholders, such as individuals, groups, and organizations. The country's civil society has a high level of volunteering, especially among the youth, who engage in various activities and initiatives, such as environmental protection, social inclusion, and cultural exchange. The country's civil society also has a high level of networking, especially among the NGOs, who form various coalitions and platforms, such as the Civil Society Promotion Center, the Initiative for Better and Humane Inclusion, and the Network for Building Peace.
The country's civil society has a significant and positive impact on the country's development and democratization, contributing to various outcomes and indicators, such as human rights, rule of law, social justice, economic growth, and social cohesion. The country's civil society also has a potential and aspiration to play a greater role in the country's integration and stabilization, aligning with the European and international standards and principles, and implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a diverse and dynamic family and kinship system, which is shaped by its historical and contemporary realities. The country's family and kinship system is influenced by various factors, such as ethnicity, religion, culture, economy, and politics. The country's family and kinship system also varies by region, class, and generation, as different groups have different family and kinship patterns, practices, and values.
The country's family and kinship system consists of various types and forms of relationships, such as marriage, cohabitation, divorce, remarriage, adoption, fosterage, and guardianship. The country's family and kinship system also consists of various levels and units of organization, such as nuclear, extended, and blended families, households, clans, lineages, and tribes. The country's family and kinship system also consists of various roles and functions of family and kin members, such as spouses, parents, children, siblings, grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins, and in-laws.
The country's family and kinship system faces many challenges and opportunities, such as demographic changes, social changes, economic changes, legal changes, and cultural changes. The country's family and kinship system also reflects and affects the country's development and democratization, contributing to various outcomes and indicators, such as gender equality, child welfare, social capital, social cohesion, and social mobility.
Some of the main characteristics and trends of the country's family and kinship system are:
Marriage: The country has a low and declining marriage rate, as more people choose to remain single, cohabit, or delay marriage. The country also has a high and increasing divorce rate, as more people choose to end their marriages, often due to domestic violence, infidelity, or incompatibility. The country also has a low and stable remarriage rate, as few people choose to marry again, often due to social stigma, legal obstacles, or economic difficulties. The country also has a low and decreasing interethnic marriage rate, as few people choose to marry outside their ethnic group, often due to ethnic division, social pressure, or political conflict. The country also has a low and decreasing arranged marriage rate, as few people choose to marry according to their parents' or relatives' wishes, often due to individualism, education, or urbanization. The country also has a low and illegal polygamous marriage rate, as few people choose to marry more than one spouse, often due to religious beliefs, cultural traditions, or personal preferences.
Family: The country has a small and shrinking family size, as more people choose to have fewer or no children, often due to economic hardship, contraceptive use, or reproductive health. The country also has a diverse and changing family structure, as more people choose to live in different types of families, such as single-parent, step, or same-sex families, often due to divorce, remarriage, or alternative lifestyles. The country also has a flexible and adaptive family function, as more people choose to perform different roles and tasks in their families, such as breadwinning, caregiving, or housekeeping, often due to gender equality, labor market, or social support. The country also has a strong and resilient family bond, as more people choose to maintain close and supportive relationships with their family members, often due to kinship, solidarity, or reciprocity.
Kinship: The country has a complex and dynamic kinship system, which is based on both descent and affinity, and which is expressed through various terms and symbols, such as names, titles, or emblems. The country also has a bilateral and cognatic kinship system, which traces kinship through both the father's and the mother's lines, and which includes both the agnatic and the uterine kin, often due to egalitarianism, diversity, or pragmatism. The country also has a patrilocal and virilocal kinship system, which expects the married couple to live with or near the husband's father's kin, and which gives more authority and inheritance to the male kin, often due to patriarchy, tradition, or security. The country also has a weak and declining kinship system, which gives less importance and influence to the kinship ties, and which reduces the frequency and intensity of the kinship interactions, often due to individualism, modernization, or globalization.
Socialization
Socialization is the process of learning and internalizing the norms, values, and behaviors of one's society or culture. Socialization is influenced by various agents, such as family, peers, school, media, and religion. Socialization is also affected by various factors, such as ethnicity, class, gender, and generation. Socialization is also shaped by various contexts, such as history, politics, economy, and environment.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a diverse and dynamic socialization process, which reflects its multicultural and multiethnic society. The country's socialization process is influenced by various agents, such as:
Family: The family is the primary and most influential agent of socialization, as it provides the basic needs, care, and guidance for the child. The family also transmits the ethnic, religious, and cultural identity and heritage of the child, as well as the values and norms of the society. The family also shapes the gender roles and expectations of the child, as well as the family structure and function. The family also supports the education and development of the child, as well as the social and emotional well-being of the child.
Peers: The peers are the secondary and most interactive agent of socialization, as they provide the friendship, companionship, and feedback for the child. The peers also influence the attitudes, behaviors, and preferences of the child, as well as the sense of belonging and identity of the child. The peers also expose the child to different perspectives, experiences, and cultures, as well as the challenges and opportunities of the society. The peers also facilitate the social skills and competencies of the child, as well as the personal and moral growth of the child.
School: The school is the formal and most systematic agent of socialization, as it provides the knowledge, skills, and values for the child. The school also fosters the cognitive, physical, and creative abilities of the child, as well as the academic and professional aspirations of the child. The school also promotes the civic, democratic, and human rights education of the child, as well as the respect and tolerance for diversity and pluralism. The school also enhances the social and cultural capital of the child, as well as the integration and participation of the child in the society.
Media: The media is the modern and most pervasive agent of socialization, as it provides the information, entertainment, and communication for the child. The media also shapes the opinions, attitudes, and behaviors of the child, as well as the awareness and understanding of the child about the world. The media also exposes the child to various images, messages, and stereotypes, as well as the influences and pressures of the society. The media also affects the identity, values, and lifestyles of the child, as well as the critical and creative thinking of the child.
Religion: The religion is the traditional and most spiritual agent of socialization, as it provides the faith, beliefs, and practices for the child. The religion also instills the moral, ethical, and social values of the child, as well as the sense of purpose and meaning of the child. The religion also connects the child to the community, culture, and history of the child, as well as the transcendental and sacred aspects of life. The religion also influences the worldview, behavior, and choices of the child, as well as the personal and social development of the child.
The country's socialization process is also affected by various factors, such as:
Ethnicity: The country has three main ethnic groups: Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats, who are also associated with Islam, Serbian Orthodoxy, and Catholicism, respectively. The ethnicity of the child affects the socialization process, as it determines the language, culture, and religion of the child, as well as the identity and affiliation of the child. The ethnicity of the child also affects the socialization process, as it influences the opportunities, resources, and outcomes of the child, as well as the relations and interactions of the child with other ethnic groups.
Class: The country has a wide and growing gap between the rich and the poor, which is exacerbated by the war, the transition, and the globalization. The class of the child affects the socialization process, as it determines the income, education, and health of the child, as well as the aspirations and expectations of the child. The class of the child also affects the socialization process, as it influences the access, quality, and equity of the services and opportunities of the child, as well as the status and recognition of the child in the society.
Gender: The country has a patriarchal and traditional society, which assigns different roles and expectations to men and women, and values masculinity and femininity differently. The gender of the child affects the socialization process, as it determines the family, school, and work experiences of the child, as well as the rights and responsibilities of the child. The gender of the child also affects the socialization process, as it influences the attitudes, behaviors, and preferences of the child, as well as the challenges and opportunities of the child in the society.
Generation: The country has a young and dynamic population, which is influenced by the war, the transition, and the globalization. The generation of the child affects the socialization process, as it determines the historical, political, and economic context of the child, as well as the values and norms of the child. The generation of the child also affects the socialization process, as it influences the perspectives, experiences, and cultures of the child, as well as the changes and innovations of the child in the society.
The country's socialization process is also shaped by various contexts, such as:
History: The country has a long and turbulent history, which has shaped its current ethnic and religious composition and relations. The history of the country affects the socialization process, as it provides the background, heritage, and memory of the child, as well as the sense of continuity and identity of the child. The history of the country also affects the socialization process, as it influences the conflicts, traumas, and legacies of the child, as well as the reconciliation and healing of the child.
Politics: The country has a complex and unique political system, which is a result of the 1995 Dayton Agreement that ended the Bosnian War. The politics of the country affects the socialization process, as it provides the structure, institutions, and policies of the child, as well as the rights and freedoms of the child. The politics of the country also affects the socialization process, as it influences the stability, security, and democracy of the child, as well as the participation and representation of the child in the society.
Economy: The country has a mixed and transitional economy, which is recovering from the war and transitioning from socialism to capitalism. The economy of the country affects the socialization process, as it provides the resources, opportunities, and outcomes of the child, as well as the well-being and dignity of the child. The economy of the country also affects the socialization process, as it influences the development, integration, and innovation of the child, as well as the competition and cooperation of the child in the society.
Environment: The country has a varied and rugged terrain, which limits the availability and accessibility of land. The country also has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold, snowy winters, which affects the design and construction of buildings. The environment of the country affects the socialization process, as it provides the natural, physical, and spatial context of the child, as well as the sense of place and belonging of the child. The environment of the country also affects the socialization process, as it influences the health, safety, and sustainability of the child, as well as the protection and conservation of the child.```
Religion
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country with a rich and diverse religious heritage, which reflects its multicultural and multiethnic society. The country has three main religions: Islam, Orthodox Christianity, and Roman Catholicism, which are also associated with the three main ethnic groups: Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats, respectively. The country also has other religions, such as Judaism, Protestantism, and Islamism, which are practiced by smaller groups of people, such as Roma, Jews, Albanians, and Turks. The country also has a significant number of people who are non-religious, agnostic, or atheist, who do not identify with any religion or belief system.
The country's religious landscape is influenced by various factors, such as history, politics, culture, and geography. The country's religious landscape is also shaped by various events and processes, such as the Ottoman rule, the Austro-Hungarian rule, the Yugoslav era, the Bosnian War, the Dayton Agreement, and the European integration. The country's religious landscape is also affected by various challenges and opportunities, such as religious freedom, religious tolerance, religious diversity, religious dialogue, and religious cooperation.
Some of the main characteristics and trends of the country's religious landscape are:
Islam: Islam is the largest and most widespread religion in the country, with about 51% of the population identifying as Muslims, according to the 2013 census. The majority of the Muslims are Bosniaks, who comprise about 48% of the total population, and who are mostly Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence and the Maturidi school of theology. The country also has some Muslims who are Serbs, Croats, Roma, Albanians, Turks, or other ethnicities, who may follow different schools or sects of Islam, such as Shia, Sufi, or Salafi. The country also has some Muslims who are converts from other religions, such as Christianity or Judaism, or who are reverts from atheism or agnosticism. Islam in the country is characterized by a moderate and tolerant interpretation, which respects the diversity and pluralism of the society, and which promotes the values of peace, justice, and human rights. Islam in the country is also characterized by a dynamic and adaptive expression, which responds to the changing needs and challenges of the society, and which creates new forms and practices of Islam, such as Islamic feminism, Islamic ecology, and Islamic art.
Orthodox Christianity: Orthodox Christianity is the second largest and most prevalent religion in the country, with about 31% of the population identifying as Orthodox Christians, according to the 2013 census. The majority of the Orthodox Christians are Serbs, who comprise about 31% of the total population, and who are mostly Serbian Orthodox Christians of the Patriarchate of Peć. The country also has some Orthodox Christians who are Croats, Bosniaks, Roma, or other ethnicities, who may belong to different Orthodox churches, such as the Greek Orthodox Church, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, or the Macedonian Orthodox Church. Orthodox Christianity in the country is characterized by a traditional and conservative interpretation, which preserves the ancient and authentic teachings and rituals of the church, and which emphasizes the values of faith, tradition, and loyalty. Orthodox Christianity in the country is also characterized by a national and cultural expression, which links the religion with the ethnicity and the identity of the people, and which celebrates the history, heritage, and symbols of the church.
Roman Catholicism: Roman Catholicism is the third largest and most prominent religion in the country, with about 15% of the population identifying as Roman Catholics, according to the 2013 census. The majority of the Roman Catholics are Croats, who comprise about 15% of the total population, and who are mostly Roman Catholics of the Latin rite. The country also has some Roman Catholics who are Serbs, Bosniaks, Roma, or other ethnicities, who may follow different rites or orders of the church, such as the Byzantine rite, the Franciscan order, or the Jesuit order. Roman Catholicism in the country is characterized by a progressive and liberal interpretation, which adapts to the modern and secular trends and challenges of the society, and which promotes the values of love, mercy, and dialogue. Roman Catholicism in the country is also characterized by a universal and ecumenical expression, which connects the religion with the global and regional communities and movements of the church, and which fosters the cooperation and solidarity among different religions and denominations.
The country's religious landscape is also marked by the presence and influence of other religions, such as:
Judaism: Judaism is one of the oldest and most established religions in the country, with a history dating back to the 15th century, when the Sephardic Jews fled from the Spanish Inquisition and settled in the Ottoman Empire, including Bosnia and Herzegovina. The country also has some Ashkenazi Jews, who came from Central and Eastern Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries, and some Mizrahi Jews, who came from the Middle East and North Africa in the 20th century. The country also has some Jews who are converts from other religions, such as Islam or Christianity, or who are intermarried with other ethnicities, such as Bosniaks, Serbs, or Croats. Judaism in the country is characterized by a diverse and pluralistic interpretation, which respects the different traditions and practices of the Jewish people, and which promotes the values of justice, wisdom, and compassion. Judaism in the country is also characterized by a resilient and creative expression, which survived the persecution and genocide of the Holocaust, and which contributes to the culture and society of the country, such as through literature, music, and art.
Protestantism: Protestantism is one of the newest and most emerging religions in the country, with a history dating back to the 19th century, when the first Protestant missionaries arrived in the country, mainly from Germany, Switzerland, and the United States. The country also has some Protestants who are converts from other religions, such as Islam or Christianity, or who are reverts from atheism or agnosticism. The country also has some Protestants who are intermarried with other ethnicities, such as Bosniaks, Serbs, or Croats. Protestantism in the country is characterized by a reformist and evangelical interpretation, which challenges the traditional and established teachings and institutions of the church, and which emphasizes the values of grace, scripture, and salvation. Protestantism in the country is also characterized by a diverse and independent expression, which includes various denominations and movements of the church, such as Lutheran, Baptist, Pentecostal, Adventist, and Methodist.
Islamism: Islamism is one of the most controversial and contested religions in the country, with a history dating back to the 20th century, when the first Islamist movements emerged in the country, mainly from the Middle East and North Africa, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, the Wahhabi, and the Salafi. The country also has some Islamists who are converts from other religions, such as Christianity or Judaism, or who are reverts from atheism or agnosticism. The country also has some Islamists who are intermarried with other ethnicities, such as Serbs, Croats, or Roma. Islamism in the country is characterized by a radical and militant interpretation, which rejects the moderate and tolerant teachings and practices of Islam, and which promotes the values of jihad, sharia, and caliphate. Islamism in the country is also characterized by a violent and extremist expression, which includes various groups and networks of the movement, such as al-Qaeda, Islamic State, and al-Nusra Front.
The country's religious landscape is also marked by the absence and decline of religion, such as:
Non-religion: Non-religion is one of the most growing and significant phenomena in the country, with about 3% of the population identifying as non-religious, according to the 2013 census[^1^][1]. The non-religious include various groups and categories of people, such as atheists, agnostics, humanists, secularists, and freethinkers. The non-religious also include various reasons and motivations for their lack of religion, such as rationalism, skepticism, science, philosophy, or personal experience. Non-religion in the country is characterized by a critical and alternative perspective, which questions and challenges the validity and relevance of religion, and which promotes the values of reason, evidence, and freedom. Non-religion in the country is also characterized by a diverse and active expression, which includes various organizations and activities of the movement, such as the Center for Secular Studies, the Association of Atheists and Agnostics, and the International Day of Atheism.
Agnosticism: Agnosticism is one of the most common and moderate forms of non-religion in the country, with about 1.5% of the population identifying as agnostics, according to the 2013 census. Agnostics are people who do not claim to know or believe in the existence or non-existence of God or any other supernatural beings or phenomena. Agnostics may be theistic, deistic, or atheistic, depending on their degree of belief or disbelief in God or any other supernatural beings or phenomena. Agnosticism in the country is characterized by a humble and open-minded attitude, which acknowledges the limits and uncertainties of human knowledge and understanding, and which respects the diversity and complexity of reality and truth. Agnosticism in the country is also characterized by a personal and individual expression, which allows the freedom and flexibility of choice and opinion, and which does not impose or accept any dogma or authority.
Medicine and Health Care
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a decentralized and fragmented health care system, which consists of two entities (the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska) and one district (the Brčko District), each with its own health authorities, policies, and regulations. The country also has 13 health insurance funds and 14 ministries of health, which create challenges for coordination, harmonization, and standardization of health care services and quality. The country's health care system is based on the principles of solidarity, universality, and equity, but faces problems of coverage, access, and affordability, especially for the poor, the rural, and the marginalized populations.
The country's health care system is financed mainly by mandatory health insurance contributions, which are collected and pooled at the entity, district, or canton level, depending on the administrative structure. The health insurance funds are responsible for contracting and paying health care providers, as well as defining the benefits package for the insured population. The benefits package is relatively comprehensive, covering primary, secondary, and tertiary care, as well as preventive, curative, and rehabilitative services, but there are variations and gaps across different health insurance funds, as well as co-payments and informal payments for some services and medicines. The country's health care system also relies on public budget allocations, external donor assistance, and private out-of-pocket expenditures, which account for about 30% of the total health spending, mainly on pharmaceuticals and medical devices.
The country's health care system is organized into three levels of care: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary health care is provided by family medicine teams, which consist of a family doctor and a nurse, and which are located in health centers or ambulances. Primary health care is the first point of contact for the population, and is responsible for providing comprehensive, continuous, and coordinated care, as well as referring patients to higher levels of care when needed. Secondary health care is provided by specialists and hospital doctors, who work in general or specialized hospitals, and who offer diagnostic, therapeutic, and surgical services, as well as emergency care. Secondary health care is accessed through referrals from primary health care or self-referrals in urgent cases. Tertiary health care is provided by highly qualified and specialized doctors, who work in clinical centers or institutes, and who offer advanced and complex services, such as organ transplantation, cardiac surgery, and oncology. Tertiary health care is accessed through referrals from secondary health care or self-referrals in exceptional cases.
The country's health care system is staffed by various health professionals, such as doctors, nurses, dentists, pharmacists, and technicians, who are trained and licensed by the relevant authorities and institutions. The country has a shortage and an imbalance of health workers, especially in rural and remote areas, as well as a high turnover and migration of health workers, mainly to Western Europe and North America. The country also has a low and unequal distribution of health facilities and equipment, especially in primary health care, as well as a low and inefficient utilization of health resources, especially in secondary and tertiary health care.
The country's health care system faces many challenges and opportunities, such as improving the quality, efficiency, and effectiveness of health care services, strengthening the governance, regulation, and accountability of health care institutions, increasing the funding, sustainability, and transparency of health care financing, enhancing the accessibility, affordability, and equity of health care coverage, promoting the prevention, awareness, and education of health care issues, and fostering the cooperation, integration, and innovation of health care actors.