The origin of the name "Georgian" is not related to Saint George, but rather to the ancient Persian words Gurg or Gorg, meaning wolf, which was allegedly a totemic symbol, or to the Greek word georgios, which means "farmer" or "land cultivator".
The main criterion for self-identification is language, and ethnic groups that have different linguistic backgrounds, such as Ossetians, Abkhazians, Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds, are not regarded as Georgian. However, there are some exceptions, such as Jews, who have Georgian as their mother tongue and bear Georgian surnames, but have historically maintained a separate cultural identity. Georgians are composed of smaller regional ethno-cultural units, each with its own traditions and customs, folklore, cuisine, and attire, and some with their own language. Ajarans, who are predominantly Sunni Muslims, differ from the Eastern Orthodox majority. All these units share and uphold a common identity, literary language, and core values.
Georgia lies on the southern flank of the Caucasus mountains, which form a natural boundary with the north Caucasian republics of the Russian Federation. The country covers an area of approximately 27,000 square miles (69,900 square kilometers), and extends along the Greater Caucasus range, bordered by the Black Sea to the west, the Armenian and Turkish highlands to the south, and Azerbaijan to the east. The terrain is diverse, with high mountains in the north, and lower mountainous areas in the central and southern regions, covered with alpine meadows and forests. In the east, the rivers converge into the Mtkvari (Kura), creating the Caspian basin, while in the west, the largest rivers, the Rioni and Enguri, flow into the Black Sea.
The climate is mild and varies according to the elevation of the mountains. The western coastal area is more humid and mild, while the eastern plains and highlands have a continental climate, isolated from the sea. The highest mountains have permanent snow and glaciers. The climate zones range from moderately humid Mediterranean, to arid Arab-Caspian, to colder mountainous regions. Nearly half of the land is used for agriculture, while the rest is mostly forested and mountainous. Land use depends on the local climatic and soil conditions.
Tbilisi, the capital, was established by King Vakhtang Gorgasali in the fifth century, and remains the most significant political and cultural hub of the country. Tbilisi is situated in the eastern region of Kartli, which is the dominant cultural area, on the banks of the Mtkvari (Kura), on the ancient route of one of the great silk roads between Europe and Asia.
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| A collage representing Georgian culture, including traditional dances, folk costumes, wine, and historical landmarks. |
Demography.
In the 1990s, the population was estimated to range from five to five and a half million, but the exact number is unknown due to widespread unrecorded emigration. Slightly more than half of the population resides in urban areas, including 1.6 million in Tbilisi. Ethnic Georgians constitute the vast majority of the population in most regions, except for some areas where there are communities of Armenians and Azeris in the south and the southeast, respectively; Ossetians in the north-central region; Abkhaz and Armenians in the northwest; Greeks in the southeast; and small numbers of Batsbi, Chechens, Ingushes, and Lezghs in the northeast. Russians and other minor ethnic groups such as Kurds, Ukrainians, Jews, and Assyrians are mainly concentrated in urban areas. According to the 1989 census, ethnic Georgians made up seventy percent of the population; Armenians 8 percent; Russians 6 percent, Azeris 6 percent, Ossetians 3 percent, and Abkhazians, less than 2 percent.
The ethnic composition of the population has shifted due to the emigration of ethnic minorities, particularly Russians, Jews, Greeks, and Armenians. Ethnic Georgians were dispersed throughout the country, while Abkhazians relocated mainly to Russian cities and Ossetians sought shelter in Northern Ossetia.
Linguistic Affiliation.
Georgian, which belongs to the Kartvelian (South Caucasian) language family, is the dominant language. However, some subgroups use other languages within the same language family. The literary language is based on the Kartlian dialect, which was spoken in the eastern kingdom of Kartli, the historical center of power. Georgian is the only Kartvelian language that has a written form and is taught, and it is the literary language for all Georgians.
The main minority languages are Abkhazian, Armenian, Azeri, Ossetian, and Russian. Abkhazian, along with Georgian, is the official language in Abkhazia. In urban areas, most ethnic minorities prefer Russian over Georgian as a second language, but many people are bilingual or trilingual, and Russian is still widely spoken in most of the country. Russian, Armenian, and Azeri are used as languages of instruction and administration locally.
Symbolism.
The cultural symbolism reflects the interplay of Asian and western influences, most notably in Byzantine and Persian elements. Another layer of symbolism is between Christian and pagan, with a weaker presence of neighboring Muslim motifs. Today, the cultural symbolism is shaped by a mythical interpretation of tradition that is influenced by the self-image of being part of European, Christian modern society.
Mythical symbols include the Golden Fleece, which is associated with the Greek myth of the Argonauts' voyage to Colchis, and Kartlos, the mythical forefather of Georgians. Other prominent mythical figures are Saint George, and Amirani, a noble hero similar to Prometheus. The Abkhazians and Ossetians share a common mythical cycle that revolves around the semidivine people of Narts.
The numbers seven and nine have symbolic significance, as does the number three, which represents the Trinity. The snow leopard and lion signify noble courage and strength. The vine signifies fertility and the Dionysian spirit, and is a prominent feature of medieval architectural decorations. A very important ornamental symbol is the fire-wheel swastika, a solar symbol that was traditionally used both as an architectural and a wood carving motif, as well as on the passport and currency. The Cross has an equally important role.
The hymn "Thou Art the True Vine" is the most sacred song. National symbols often refer to language, motherland (national territory), and Confession (Christian Orthodoxy). The values of loyalty to kin, honor, and hospitality are highly esteemed. The typical metaphor is that of a mother. Other metaphors are related to the sun, which is seen as a source of beauty and light, brotherhood, supreme loyalty, and victory.
State symbolism originates from the Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918–1921). The most revered national celebration (26 May) is connected to the declaration of independence in 1918. The national flag of black and white stripes on a dark crimson background and the state emblem, White George on horseback surrounded by a septagonal star, echo the imagery of that era.
##History and Ethnic Relations
The formation of a cultural identity was influenced by the processes of political integration and fragmentation. In the south and east, the state of Kartli (Iberia) brought together tribes that shared the Kartvelian language. King Parnavaz of Kartli made the first attempt to unify the country in the early third century B.C.E. Georgia embraced Christianity in 334, when King Mirian III of Kartli-Iberia, following the guidance of Saint Nino of Cappadocia, made it the official religion. The alphabet was likely developed soon after to translate sacred texts, replacing Aramaic and Greek scripts and giving rise to both the hieratic script and the modern secular alphabet. The first Georgian inscriptions appeared in Jerusalem in the fifth century, followed by the first known literary work, the Martyrdom of Saint Shushanik. Around that time, King Vakhtang briefly united the east and west of Georgia. Several centuries later, the new Bagration dynasty gained control of the Inner Kartli and the city of Uplistsikhe, and in 978, King Bagrat III
Bagration became the first ruler of both Kartli and Abkhazia. In 1314, Giorgi V the Brilliant restored Georgia's unity after a long period of decline under the Mongols, but Tamerlain's invasions shattered the nation's strength and cohesion. With the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Georgia remained the only Christian bastion in a region of Muslim realms. In the early nineteenth century, Georgia was incorporated into the Russian Empire, when the tsars Pavel and Alexander annexed the eastern region, abolishing the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti.
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Georgia proclaimed its independence in 1918, but the democratic Republic of Georgia, governed by a social-democratic regime, was overrun by the Red Army in 1921, a few days after it was acknowledged by European states. The Soviet Socialist Republic of Georgia kept its formal sovereignty but was a subservient member of the Soviet Empire until its collapse in 1991, when Zviad Gamsakhurduia declared independence. By the end of that year, Gamsakhurdia was ousted by a military coup. The military regime, unable to deal with international isolation and an economic crisis, invited the former Soviet foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze to become the chairman of the State Council, retaining real power in its hands. After two years of civil war and secessionist disputes in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, Shevardnadze assumed control of the government. A new parliament was elected in 1995, a new constitution was enacted, and Shevardnadze was elected president. The self-declared republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia remain a source of tension, but talks on their status are ongoing and virtually no military action has occurred since 1993.
National Identity. The evolution of the nation is connected to the effort to unify Georgia by King Parnavaz. However, at that time different regions of the country had different languages and little in common. Western Georgia was populated by Colchian, proto-Abkhazian and proto-Svan tribes, with Greek colonies along the Black Sea coast, while in the east and south the language was closer to modern Georgian, although some of the territory was inhabited by Turkic, Armenian, Alan, and Albanian tribes. The migration of eastern Georgian tribes to the west and the gradual assimilation of other ethnic groups in the east coincided with religious unity and consolidation under the Bagratid dynasty at the end of tenth century. During several centuries of shared statehood, the Abkhaz, Armenians, Turks, and Ossetians partially preserved their cultural identities, while Albanians were completely assimilated.
Ethnic Relations.
Ethnic subgroups with shared cultural identities had little conflict, although the medieval feudal system often provoked internal wars and strife among ethnic kin. Today, despite the mass movements of Svans to the southeast of Georgia and Megrel refugees from the separatist Abkhazia to other parts of the country, tensions have subsided. However, among the Abkhaz and Ossetians, radical nationalism and tension after the collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in civil wars. There are some frictions with Armenians and between Azeris and Armenians in the rural southeast.
There are large numbers of mainly Muslim ethnic Georgians in Iran and Turkey. 100,000 Georgians have maintained their cultural identity in the small Fereydan region near Isfahan. Turkey occupies a vast territory with a historically Georgian population and many cultural monuments. These groups of Gürji, as they are known in Turkey, and Laz recognize their Georgian ancestry but have a strong Turkish national identity.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
Settlements tend to be dominated by a church built on a nearby hill if not in the center. However, in the Soviet period, many churches were demolished or converted into warehouses. Newly constructed churches are mostly inferior copies of older models, crude expressions of a fading tradition. Little remains of the medieval structure of small urban settlements enclosed by a citadel wall.
Urban architecture shows strong traces of Soviet influence. Government buildings and sculptures from the Soviet era are dismal and pompous. These buildings have flat surfaces and huge waste spaces in the form of colonnades or halls. In the 1970s and 1980s a new tradition emerged with more light and better use of space but was impersonal and lacked originality. Since independence, economic crises have prevented the construction of new government buildings. The older quarters in some cities are graceful and show an appealing blend of European and Asian architecture. The majority of smaller towns are enlarged villages that display little effort to arrange space or create an urban environment.
Rural architecture is characterized by two-story stone buildings with large verandas. In the mountains, villages are often dominated by scenic towers. Stone houses may encircle a family tower or be organized in terraces with small gardens or yards. Traditional dwellings in the southern volcanic highlands were sunk deep in the ground and had no windows, with polygonal tapering ceilings with a central opening for light and the escape of smoke. Internal space was arranged around the fireplace below the roof opening, and a richly carved central column had both a functional and a sacred role.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life. The main culinary difference is between the western and eastern region. In the west, there is a greater focus on vegetarian food, mainly prepared with walnuts. Herbs and spices, especially tarragon, basil, coriander, feuille Grec, and pepper make western Georgian food hot and spicy. Cheese is usually made from cow's milk and is consumed with either corn bread or a corn and flour porridge. Khachapuri, a type of cheese pizza, is common.
In the east, the food is more substantial, with a greater emphasis on mutton and pork. Wheat bread is favored over corn, and sheep's cheese from Tusheti is well-liked. Among the mountain dwellers, the most common food is khinkali, a boiled meat dumpling that is usually served with beer. The most prevalent vegetables are tomatoes, potatoes, radishes, pumpkins, eggplant, beans, cucumbers, and cabbage. The most popular sauce, tkemali, is made of wild plums; other sauces are made of walnuts with spices, or pomegranate juice. Wine is consumed everywhere, and stronger alcoholic drinks include araki, which is made of grapes and other fruit with honey. Fish, especially trout, is eaten widely. A large variety of locally grown fruit is complemented by wild and cultivated berries, watermelons and other melons. Dried fruit and nuts coated with a mixture of grape juice and wheat or corn flour are eaten in the winter. Jams are made from fruit, unripe walnuts, watermelon, eggplant, and green tomatoes.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At the New Year's celebration, ground walnuts boiled in honey are offered, along with a turkey or chicken in walnut sauce. An Easter meal consists of hard-boiled eggs dyed red and other bright colors, roasted piglet and lamb, and special cakes with vanilla and spices. Special dishes are served at a wake: rice with mutton in the east, and meat with sweet rice and raisins in the west. Special wheat porridge with walnuts and honey is served forty days after a person's death.
Basic Economy. Georgians were mainly rural people until the beginning of this century, when industrialization triggered a mass migration from the countryside to the city, especially to the capital. Most families still maintain kinship ties with the rural areas and preserve some traditions of their native places.
Industrialization and the urban economy have had a limited impact on the national culture. Today, most of the population lives in urban areas and works in services or industrial production. Industry has been slow in recovering from the economic crisis of the early 1990s. Agriculture has been faster to recover and accounts for almost 30 percent of the gross domestic product. A considerable part of exports consists of processed or raw agricultural products such as hazelnuts, tea and wine. However, the country is not self-sufficient in producing grain due to the limited arable land.
Land Tenure and Property. After independence, much of the land owned by the state was privatized. Over half the cultivated land was privatized by 1994, and that proportion continues to grow. However, in the highlands, where there is little cultivated land, privatization may involve restitution, as families respect traditional ownership. The state continues to control almost all uncultivated land, forests, and pastures; further privatization is expected in these areas.
Commercial Activities. Apart from agricultural products, mineral water, soft drinks, and beverages, few goods are produced locally for the retail market. Cheaper goods from Turkey, Russia, China, and Bulgaria are sold in the shops. Some locally produced building materials, chemicals, and textiles are sold.
Major Industries. Major industries include metallurgy, metal and chemical works, mining (manganese, arsenic, copper, gold, oil, and raw materials for chemical production such as barite and mineral water), electronic devices, and machinery. A larger role is being played by transportation and especially transhipment because of the development of pipeline routes and transportation projects.
Trade. The main exports are food, drink, tobacco, metals, and chemicals. The main imports are energy and fuel, mineral products, machinery, and food, drink and tobacco. There is a large trade deficit. The main trading partners are Russia, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Bulgaria, the European Union, and the United States.
Division of Labor. High-paying jobs are available for those with a good proficiency in English and advanced computer skills, while older people stay in poorly paid occupations. However, workers in their forties and fifties continue to hold leading positions in ownership and management, as a result of their advantage in initial capital and business connections from the Soviet era.
##Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. The systems of social stratification changed considerably because of the increasing income gap between the impoverished masses and former white-collar workers, and the new rich, who have used financial and social capital to accumulate capital through privatization or trade, or have exploited corruption in the state bureaucracy. Another change is related to the transformation of the political and economic system from the Soviet centralized type to a free market, although often the same Soviet bureaucrats and Communist officials have become capitalists and supporters of a liberal economy. Much of the new capital is concentrated in Tbilisi, Batumi, and the Black Sea port of Poti and thus is dominated by ethnic Georgians. The Armenian and Jewish economic elite that once played a significant role, especially in Tbilisi, has lost its position because of emigration or because they keep a lower profile.
Symbols of Social Stratification. A Westernized lifestyle indicates an advanced position. A Mercedes car signifies success, as do an apartment or house in a prestigious district, summering in France, and sending one's children to private European or American schools. Visiting casinos is another indicator of upward social mobility.
Political Life
Government. Georgia is a presidential republic. The president is also the leader of the executive branch, although the ministers are formally headed by the state minister. The single-chamber (225 members strong) parliament is elected in a mixed majoritarian-proportional system. The last parliamentary elections were won by the president's Citizens' Union of Georgia. The other two parties in the parliament are the Union of Industrialists and the Union of Georgia's Revival. The judicial branch, which was weak in the communist era, is in the process of being reformed. Local governments are partly elected and partly appointed from Tbilisi and have little formal power and small budgets. Depending on personal authority and local conditions, they may be fairly independent in their policies.
Leadership and Political Officials. Political parties, apart from the Union of Georgia's Revival, have little cohesion and lack clear political agendas. They mostly serve as instruments for pursuing a political career. Most parties tend to be social-democratic or moderately nationalistic. Personalities and personal connections play a crucial role in a political career, and the need to balance political issues and personal loyalty makes personnel appointments far from meritocractic. Many politicians are involved in economic activities, and this often creates conflicts of interest.
###Social Problems and Control.
The level of crime has decreased significantly since the civil wars and unrest of the early 1990s, which saw a rise in law violations and serious crimes such as murder and burglary. The most socially harmful crime is drug trafficking, which has increased the number of young drug addicts. Organized crime is another major concern. Corruption and incompetence in bloated law enforcement agencies and a weak judicial system have made it hard to combat crime. The general public is unhappy with the current situation and with the system of law. Sometimes, especially in rural areas with a strong tradition of customary law, the community itself or the relatives of a victim will take justice into their own hands and punish the offender of a particularly heinous crime.
Military Activity. There has been little military activity since the end of the civil war and the cessation of the conflict in Abkhazia, but the development of the nation's military capacity attracts great interest from both the public and the government. Georgia participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace program and seeks to achieve closer cooperation, and even integration, with NATO. There are still four Russian military bases in the country, although their gradual withdrawal is in progress.
##Social Welfare and Change Programs
The state welfare system is ineffective, and has limited resources. Pensions provide only a fifth of the minimum subsistence level, are poorly targeted, and cover too many recipients. Much of the assistance goes to internally displaced persons from Abkhazia. A number of international and intergovernmental organizations are trying to improve the welfare system.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
There are thousands of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), but few of them are active and successful. NGOs are involved in protecting human rights and freedom of expression as well as environmental protection. However, as almost all NGOs are funded by western sources, they have to adjust to the preferences and style of foreign funders, which often have only a vague understanding of the real needs of the country.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. There is no clear division of labor by gender except in the areas of hard physical labor such as mining. The national culture assigns women both the role of breadwinner and housewife. Most urban women work when they can, although few have roles in the military and law enforcement. Top-level political and business jobs are less available for women, and only a few are in the government. No women can become a priest in the Orthodox church or a mullah among Muslims.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. The national culture strongly values respect for women. Legislation grants a woman's right to take the children after a divorce. Women receive pregnancy leaves and earlier retirements and are not subject to military conscription. Although men dominate both public and family life, most housework is done by women. With many young educated women getting better paid jobs than their fathers or husbands, traditional stereotypes of gender-defined social roles are changing.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship
Marriage. Marriage is based on the free choice of the partners and seldom is arranged, although that sometimes occurs in rural areas, especially among the Muslim population. Mutual attraction is the most usual motive for marriage, although for older couples, economic advantages or comfort may be more significant. In Muslim areas, informal polygamy exists in rare instances. There is a considerable occurrence of early marriage, but there is a general trend for later marriage. Married persons who keep a joint household have equal rights to their belongings.
Domestic Unit. The basic household in cities is the nuclear family, but often, grandparents live together with the family and help to raise the children. In rural and mountainous areas, a few extended families exist, usually comprising several brothers with their parents and children. In this case the father of the family may manage the resources, and allocate tasks on the farm, while the mother is in charge of maintaining the household. Younger members progressively split off, building a separate house in the vicinity.
Inheritance. If there is no will after a person's death, the property is distributed among all the children, including daughters, or among the nearest relatives if there are no children.
Kin Groups. People attach great importance to kinship. Relatives up to the third or even fourth generation are regarded as close, and are expected to share both joyful events and sorrows. They meet regularly at important social events such as weddings and funerals, and neglecting the social obligation to attend is frowned upon. The kinship system played an important role in mitigating the effects of economic crisis when the social welfare system was disrupted. Extended kinship relations may create patronage and nepotism as well as organized crime.
Socialization
Infant Care. Traditional practices in the care of infants have been discarded, such as the practice of rearing young infants in a special type of cradle that limited the movement of a child. Children are the center of the family, and much attention is paid to their education and development, especially in the educated classes. Because kindergartens are less available today, retired grandparents often care for the children.
Child Rearing and Education. The early intellectual development of infants is valued, and parents love to display their children's achievements. The values instilled and the skills taught differ by gender. Boys are taught to be strong and brave and deal with cars or tools. Girls are expected to be modest and skilled in housekeeping, sewing, and cooking; play with dolls rather than war toys; and are more often taught to play musical instruments. Although many parents believe in genetically inherited qualities and talents, education is valued.
Higher Education. Higher education and a university diploma are highly valued even when the quality of education is unsatisfactory. It is almost impossible to have a career without a diploma, although higher education is not always associated with a higher income.
Etiquette
Both men and women may kiss one another on the cheek in public places. Kissing on the lips and intimate hugging in public are not acceptable. Shaking hands is common, but women shake hands less often than men do. Either the person with higher social status or the woman is supposed to initiate greeting and define its form. In the countryside, it is common to greet strangers. Men may hug while walking in the street. In general, the closer the relationship, the smaller the distance at which people stand. Women are not supposed to stare at a stranger or smoke on the street.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. The vast majority of the population adheres to the Georgian Orthodox Church, an Eastern (Greek) Orthodox church. Confessional identity is a powerful cultural factor that defines the dominant system of social values. The majority of Georgians in Ajara are Sunni Muslims, as are some residents of the Meskheti region. There are also Shiite Muslims among the Turkic residents in the southeast (Azeris) and Sunni Muslims among the Abkhaz, Ossetians, and Greeks. Several Protestant churches are active, with the Baptists being the most effective. Most ethnic Armenians belong to the Gregorian Christian Church. There are small groups of Yezid Kurds, Russian Molokans and Dukhobors, and Jews; the population of the latter two groups has decreased because of emigration. New emerging cults and sects, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, encounter hostility and violence from the established churches and the population.
Rituals and Holy Places. The vast majority of Orthodox religious ceremonies are performed by priests in churches. The most important ceremonies, especially those celebrating Easter and Christmas, are performed by the Patriarch in Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in the ancient town of Mtskheta, or in the Zion Cathedral in Tbilisi. Daily services are held in churches, as well as weddings and baptisms. In some cases priests are invited to other places to bless new initiatives, buildings or organizations. Many people profess to be religious but rarely attend religious ceremonies. In mountainous regions, people who identify as Christian continue to follow rituals of pagan origin.
Death and the Afterlife. Many of the popular beliefs and rituals regarding death and afterlife stem from a combination of Christian and pagan concepts, with many superstitions and cultural borrowings. Respecting the deceased is a very important part of social life, and much time is spent attending funerals and wakes and caring for graves. Although people believe in an eternal afterlife, there is no clear understanding of its nature; people follow rules and try to ease their grief by ritualizing the mourning process.
Secular Celebrations
The most widely celebrated holiday still is the New Year. Among national holidays, Independence Day is the most revered, and people like to attend even newly invented festivities such as Tbilisoba in October, a holiday invented by the Communist authorities.
The Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. Although the state is supposed to support arts through the Ministry of Culture, there are few funds that rarely find the proper use. Some professional unions, once controlled by the government, continue to demand state support despite contributing little to cultural life. Artists whose work depends less on linguistic limitations, such as painters and craftsmen, look for financial support and markets abroad. Many writers and artists work in politics or business or try to combine them with their art; it is not uncommon for film makers and writers to have a position in the parliament or other agencies of the government.
Literature.
Literature is in a poor condition because of the political and economic crisis that started long before independence. There are only a few young talented writers and poets and almost none from the older generation. The literary market is dominated by translations of bestsellers, detective stories, and erotica.
Graphic Arts
Graphic arts are popular, and many young artists are showing high levels of creativity and skill. Many artists sell their work in the West.
Performance Arts.
The performance arts are in a dire situation because language barriers prevent the art from reaching a broader audience. Several ballet dancers, opera singers, and theater directors have attained success in other countries. However, in Tbilisi, performance art and dramatic art are vibrant and rich.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
Physical and natural sciences, along with engineering, were highly advanced in the Soviet period because of their relevance to defense. Today there is hardly any funding in these areas, as most Western aid goes to the social sciences. This has prompted many scientists to emigrate, and the brain drain has helped sustain relations with leading scientific institutions. The social sciences were underdeveloped in the communist era and have not achieved international standards in teaching and research.